Hanfu. It was worn mainly by noblewomen for ceremonies or official occasions. It is also traditional headgear for brides and could be worn in set of Traditional Chinese wedding dress attire, such as the fengguan xiapei. Fengguan literally means “phoenix crown” in English language, a name that originates from its adornments: phoenixes made of inlaid kingfisher feathers, as well as gold dragons, beaded pheasants, pearls, and other gemstones. One of the earliest phoenix crowns that has been excavated belonged to Empress Xiao of the Sui dynasty. The type became most popular during the Ming dynasty, with many changes made over time. Fengguan evolved from Fengchai (Chinese: 鳳釵; pinyin: fèngchāi; lit. It was in Eastern Jin (317-420 AD) that the word fengguan first came up; however, it was referring to the hairpin which was imitating the comb of Chinese phoenix. Chinese hairpin worn by empresses and emperor’s concubines. The artifact was protect-repaired and studied in Shaanxi Provincial Cultural Heritage Administration; later, a replica was made based on the studies. The earliest fengguan discovered was the crown of Empress Xiao of the Sui dynasty, unearthed from the Emperor Yang of Sui’s tomb in 2013. The crown was made under the order of Emperor Taizong of Tang after the empress’s death. The numbers of phoenixes, dragons and precious gems on each crown is different. For example, the phoenix crown of Ming Empress Xiaoduanxian has 6 dragons, 3 phoenixes, 5,449 pearls, 71 rubies, and 57 sapphires. Other phoenix crowns of empresses excavated from the Ming tombs have 9 phoenixes, between 12 and 9 dragons, more than 3,500 pearls, and more than 150 gemstones. Kingfisher feathers were extremely rare during the Ming dynasty and were potentially sourced from Cambodia. The pearls, gemstones and kingfisher feathers were made into ornamental flowers, leaves, clouds, qipao dresses and temple ornaments (Chinese: 兩博鬢; pinyin: liǎngbóbìn; the ‘wings’ at the sides and back of the crown). There are different varieties of fengguan. The number of dragons, phoenixes and pheasants, in addition to the presence of certain ornaments was dictated by rank. The weight of the entire crown can range from 2-3 kilograms (4.4-6.6 lb). Shierlongjiu fengguan (Chinese: 十二龍九鳳冠) is the 12-dragons-9-phoenixes crown. Jiulongjiu fengguan (Chinese: 九龍九鳳冠) is the 9-dragons-9-phoenixes crown. Jiulongsi fengguan (Chinese: 九龍四鳳冠) is the 9-dragons-4-phoenixes crown. Sanlonger fengguan (Chinese: 三龍二鳳冠) is the 3-dragons-2-phoenixes crown. Liulongsan fengguan (Chinese: 六龍三鳳冠) is the 6-dragons-3-phoenixes crown. Only the crowns of empresses and crown princesses (wife of crown prince) can have temple ornaments adorned, with the empress’s crown having 6 blades of temple ornaments (3 on each side). Chinese: 七翟冠; lit. Chinese: 五翟冠; lit. Jiudiguan (Chinese: 九翟冠; lit. All other noblewomen/wives and daughters of officials wear the pearl-and-emerald crown (Chinese: 珍珠翡翠冠; pinyin: zhēnzhūfěicuìguān), where the crown is just adorned with pearls and gemstones (in various ornamental shapes). Noblewomen cannot have temple ornaments on their headdresses. Phoenix crowns worn with diyi have no strings of pearls by the sides of the head. The practice is believed to have started during Southern Song when the Emperor rewarded a girl for saving his life. Coloured hats worn by commoner women on their wedding ceremony during the Ming and Qing dynasty was also called fengguan. Women wearing the fengguan as part of their set of wedding clothing has been a long tradition in the area of Zhejiang. The fengguan was a symbol of good fortune. However, women who were remarrying for a second times and who were to be become a man’s concubine were not allowed to wear fengguan. Tang dynasty phoenix crown worn by Empress regnant Wu Zetian. Ming dynasty phoenix crown with diyi worn by Empress Xiaoke. Ming dynasty phoenix crown with strings of pearls worn by Empress Xiaozhuangrui. Ming dynasty noblewoman wearing a crown with 5 pheasants and traditional Ming dress. View of the reverse of a Ming dynasty empress’ phoenix crown with 3 dragons and 3 phoenixes. Bride wearing a phoenix crown for a wedding. Ming dynasty noblewoman wearing a crown with 9 pheasants and traditional Ming dress, known as fengguan xiapei. Diyi worn with phoenix crown. Dashan (大衫) worn with phoenix crown (side view). Ming dynasty phoenix crown with 9 dragons and 9 phoenixes. Ming dynasty phoenix crown with 9 dragons and 9 phoenixes. Empress Xiaojiesu of the Ming dynasty wearing a phoenix crown and traditional Ming costume. Empress Dowager Xiaoding of the Ming dynasty wearing a crown and traditional Ming costume. Ming dynasty phoenix crown with 6 dragons and 3 phoenixes belonging to Empress Xiaoduanxian. A Ming dynasty crown with three dragons and two phoenixes. Fengguan of Empress Xiansu of the Song dynasty. Fengguan of Empress Zhu of the Song dynasty. Yang, Shaorong (2004). Traditional Chinese clothing : costumes, adornments & culture (1st ed.). Evy Wong (2012). Chinese auspicious culture (English ed.). San Francisco: Long River Press. Zhonghua gu jin zhu. 始皇又金银作凤头，以玳瑁为脚，号曰凤钗。 鋳金钗象凤皇之冠。 Zizhi Tongjian. 庚子，隋萧后卒。 诏复其位号，谥曰愍；使三品护葬，备卤簿仪卫，送至江都，与炀帝合葬。 Juan, Hunjia (2016). Marriage. Ming Tombs (in Chinese). Special Administrative Agency for the Thirteen Mausoleums, Beijing. Singapore: Asiapac Books. p. Song, Yuxian (2015). The Power of the Phoenix Crown: Imperial Women and Material Culture in Late Ming China. 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